I- General Introduction
Academic
writing usually involves focusing on the work of other people. Besides our own
contribution of experiences, thoughts and examples, information from other
sources like books, articles, newspapers, world wide web, statistics, lectures
etc. are also integrated to our own work. This means that we are engaged with
other people’s contributions.
It is
inevitable that we
benefit from the findings of thousands of years of accumulated information in
our writing. However, it is important to draw a line between our own ideas and
works of others. That is, thoughts or words of other people that are used in
our writing should be attributed to their proper source. Failure to acknowledge
the source of information that belongs to someone else, and to represent the
information as our own product (either on purpose or unintentionally) is a
serious offense called plagiarism. Citing sources properly is
crucial in academic writing not only to avoid plagiarism but also to enable the
reader of your work to find the sources
that you used.
When to Document Sources?
You
must document an information whenever it is:
·
Another person’s idea, interpretation or theory
·
Fact, graph, statistics or drawing that are not
common knowledge[1]
·
Direct quotation from another person’s spoken or written
words
·
Paraphrase or summary of another person’s spoken or
written words
·
Any borrowed material that might seem to be your own
without citation
It should
also be taken into consideration that without citing the source, it is
plagiarism to:
·
Copy and paste text from any web site
·
Simply modify a text from any source
·
Translate a text from one language to another
II- What are the Differences among Quoting, Paraphrasing and
Summarizing?
Quotation is the usage of someone else’s words or ideas identically, therefore, you must quote it word by word. If the quotation is less than five lines, place the document you are using in quotation marks (“ ”). If it is more than that length, omit the quotation marks and indent the quoted material 2.5 cm from your left-hand margin with a paragraph and write it in single space. If the source material already has the double-quote marks (“ ”) around it, quote it with single-quote marks (‘ ’). Finally cite the source in the paper with a footnote or in-text citation according to a standard documentation style.[2] Within quotations, use square brackets [ ] (not parentheses) to add your own clarification, comment, correction or emphasis. For example, the material enclosed in square brackets in the following sentence was added to clarify the quotation: "He [Hamlet] changes significantly after seeing Fortinbras and his army." Moreover, if there is a sentence or a group of words that is written in italics or bold in the original text, then this should be mentioned by using the words “emphasis original”. Similarly, if there is a sentence or a group of words that you have written in italics or bold for the purpose of emphasising your point, then this should be mentioned by using the words “emphasis mine”. To do that you may either use a footnote[3] after the emphasised words or phrases, or you may mention it within square brackets [ ]. If a mistake or problem of some sort is in the original material you are quoting, use [sic], which is Latin for "in this manner" to indicate that it is not a mistake you made in your writing.
Example: An interesting fact about
black hole is that “there must be a singularity of infinite density and
space-time curvature within a black hole.” (Hawking 1988, 88)
Paraphrasing is
rephrasing someone else’s idea by using your own words. Although it is written
in your own words, the idea still belongs to the author. Thus, in paraphrasing
also the source should be acknowledged.
Example: According to Hawking (1988, 88), it is
necessary that a singularity of infinite density and space-time curvature exist
within a black hole.
Summarising resembles
paraphrasing. The difference in summarising is that only the main points of
someone else’s work is incorporated to your writing in your own words.
Source material is broadly overviewed. Once again, it is necessary to credit
the source through a documentation.
III-
How to Document Sources?
Documentation
styles prescribe methods for citing the sources that are consulted, referred to
or quoted from. They provide the ways of citing information within the text and
preparing list of works cited at the end of the paper. Some of the
documentation styles are American Psychological Association (APA), Modern
Language Association (MLA), Chicago Style etc. Different academic disciplines
prefer different documentation styles. Chicago Style is the documentation style
that is widely used in the political science and public administration field of
study. Thus, following sections will focus on using Chicago Style to
cite and document sources. At the end of these sections, there will be a quick
reference guide for undergraduate students that is prepared according to the
principles set by METU Studies in Development Periodical.[4]
The
guidelines for Chicago Style of documentation are based on the principles
presented in The Chicago Manual of Style, 14th ed. (Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 1993).
Chicago
Manual suggests two primary citation methods:
1- Author-date citations (in-text
or parenthetical citation) and reference list.
2- Notes and bibliographies
Any of
these methods can be preferred in giving citation. What is important is to
apply one method consistently throughout the paper.
1-
Author-Date (Parenthetical)
Citations and Reference List
In the parenthetical citation system, author’s last name and date of publication of the work are given in parentheses within the running text or at the end of a quotation and complete citation information is given in the list of references at the end of the paper.
Here is an example of a parenthetical reference following a quotation: Jean Toomer is an imaginative writer who sought to breach "the narrow constraints of conventional language" (Huggins 1980).
No punctuation is used between
the author’s last name and the date.
If you use the author’s name
to introduce the material cited, give only the year of publication in
parentheses after the author’s name. Ex: John (1988) has reported findings
about the impacts of technology.
For works by two or three authors, all last names are included. Ex: (Brown and Mead 1998). For more than three authors, use the last name of the first author followed by et al. Ex: (Brown et al. 1982) When citing a specific page, figure, section or other element, the page number etc. should follow the date preceded by a comma. Ex: (Smith 1996, 42).
When a source has no
individual authors and is published by a corporation, government agency,
association, or other named group, the name of that group serves as the
author's name. Ex: (American Library
Association 1978, 25)
Reference List
Reference list is arranged alphabetically by author's last name and it can be called “References”, “Works Cited” or "Literature Cited."
In the Reference List:
·
The
author's first and middle initials are usually used instead of the full
name.
(Format : Last name, Initials
of the name of author. Year. Title of
the work. Place of Publication:
Publisher.)
Ex:
·
The
first line of each entry in the reference list is not indented; all subsequent
lines are indented.
·
The
date of publication is placed immediately after the author's name.
·
Title
of work is italicised or underlined.
·
Only
the first word in a title or subtitle is capitalized, along with proper nouns
and adjectives.
Ex:
Stoller P. and Olkes C. 1987. Sorcery's shadow.
·
Quotation
marks are not used to enclose titles of periodical articles, chapters, short
literature etc.
Ex:
Louise M. 1993. The Transactional theory: against dualisms. College English 55: 377-86.
·
Dot (.) is used between the items.
Information provided in this
section are based on the guidelines provided by: *
Julene Sodt, “Quick Reference Guide to the Chicago Manual of Style”,
*
Examples of Entries in the
Reference List for Different Kinds of Sources
Book, Two Authors
Lynd, R. and Lynd, H. 1929.
More than Three Authors
Greenberger, M., Aronofsky J.,
McKenney J.L., and Massey W. F. 1974. Networks for research and education: Sharing
of computer and information resources nationwide.
Institution or Organization as
"Author"
American Library Association,
Young Adult Services Division, Services Statement Development Committee. 1978. Directions
for library service to young adults.
Editor or Compiler as
"Author"
von Halberg, R. ed. 1984. Canons.
Author's Work Contained in Collected
Works
Coleridge, S. T. 1884. The
complete works of Samuel Taylor Coleridge. Edited by W.G.T. Shedd. Vol.1, Aids
to reflection.
Edition Other than First
Bober, M.M. 1948. Karl
Marx's interpretation of history. 2nd ed. Harvard Economic
Studies.
Secondary Source of Quotation
Barthes, R. 1968. "La
mort de l'auteur" (The death of the author). Manteia, vol. 5.
Translated by Stephen Heath in Image/music/text.
Article in a Journal
Jackson, R. 1979. Running down
the up-escalator: Regional inequality in
Article in a Magazine or Newspaper
Weber, B. 1985. The myth
maker: The creative mind of novelist E.L. Doctorow. New York Times Magazine,
20 October, 42.
Book Review in a Journal
Frankfather, D. 1985. Review
of The disabled state, by Deborah A. Stone. In Social Service
Review 59 (September): 523-25.
Thesis or Dissertation
Artioli, G. 1985. Structural
studies of the water molecules and hydrogen bonding in zeolites. Ph.D. diss.,
Electronic Documents
Baker, J. C., and Hunstead, R.
W. 1995. Revealing the effects of orientation in composite quasar spectra. Astrophysical
Journal 452 (October). Internet. Available from
http://www.aas.org/ApJ/v452n2/5309/5309.html; accessed 29 September 1995.
Films and Video Recordings
Perlman,
Above examples of references
are taken from:
Turabian, K. 1996. 6th
ed. A Manual for Writers of Term
Papers, Theses, and
Dissertations.
2- Notes and Bibliographies
Notes
A number is put after each
quotation, paraphrase, or summary. Punctuation marks (such as comma or dot) are
not put after the number. Notes may be put either to the bottom of each page
(footnotes) or to the end of paper as a separate page (endnotes).
Notes are arranged numerically and each citation corresponds to a numbered note
stating publication information about the source cited. Footnotes are separated
from the text with a typed line.[5]
Notes themselves are single-spaced and the first line of each note is indented
five spaces from the left margin. There exists double space between notes. When
cited for the first time, notes should include complete bibliographic
information. Subsequent notes referring to that work will use a shortened
version of the citation. (Examples are provided on page 10)
The following examples of
notes are taken from The University of Wisconsin-Madison Writing Center,
“Chicago Style: General Information about Notes”, Writer’s Handbook,
2001 <http://www.wisc.edu/writing/Handbook/DocChiNotes.html>
(14 January 2002)
Books
Book by a Single Author, First Edition:
Authors First Name Initial Last Name, Title
of the Book, (Publication Location: Publishing Company, Year), pages.
Donald N. McCloskey,
Book by a Single Author, Later Edition:
Author’s First Name Initial Last Name,
Title of the Book, ed. (Publication Location: Publishing Company, Year),
pages.
Donald N. McCloskey, The Applied Theory
of Price,
2nd ed. (New York: Macmillan, 1985), 24.
Book by Two or Three Authors:
First Author’s First Name Initial Last
Name and Second Author’s First Name Initial Last Name, Title of the Book, (Publication
Location: Publishing Company, Year), pages.
Donald A. Lloyd and Harry R. Warfel, American
English
and Its Cultural Setting (New
York: Alfred A. Knopf,
1956), 12.
[If there is a third author, follow this example:
James Smith, Donald Marc, and Jack Jones.]
Book by More than Three Authors:
Place et al. after the first author and do
not state the other authors.
Martin Greenberger et al., Networks for
Research and Education: Sharing of Computer and Information Resources
Nationwide (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1974),50.
Book by an Unknown Author:
If the writer of the book is unknown,
start with the name of the book.
College Bound Seniors (Princeton:
College BoardPublications, 1979), 1.
Book with Both an Author and an Editor or Translator:
Helmut Thielicke, Man in God's World,
trans. and ed. John W. Doberstein (New York: Harper and Row, 1963), 12.
An Anthology:
Poetical Works of William Wordsworth,
ed. E. de Selincourt and H. Darbishire, 2nd ed., vol. 2 (Oxford:Oxford
University Press, 1952), 10.
Chapter in an Edited Collection:
Ernest Kaiser, "The Literature of
Harlem," in
Reprinted Book:
The difference between reprinted book
and later edition is that, while in the former the book is reprinted
identically without any change, in the latter, book is edited or revised.
Gunnar Myrdal, Population: A Problem
for Democracy (Cambridge: Harvard
University Press, 1940; reprint, Gloucester, MA: Peter Smith, 1956), 9.
Articles
Article in a Journal:
Louise M. Rosenblatt, "The
Transactional Theory: Against Dualisms," College English 54 (1993):
380.
Book Review in a Journal:
Steven Spitzer, review of The Limits of
Law Enforcement, by Hans Zeisel, American Journal of Sociology
91 (1985): 727.
Newspaper Article:
Tyler Marshall, "200th Birthday of
Grimms Celebrated," Los Angeles Times, 15 March 1985, sec. 1A, p.
3.
["p." is used to make clear the difference
between the page and section numbers.]
Encyclopedia Entry
Encyclopedia Britannica, 11th ed.,
s.v."Wales."
[The Latin sub verbo
(s.v.) means "under the word".]
Government Document
Congressional Record, 71st Cong.,
2nd sess.,1930, 72, pt. 10:10828:30.
Unpublished Material (Dissertation or
Thesis)
James E. Hoard, "On the Foundations
of Phonological Theory" (Ph.D. diss., University of Washington, 1967),
119.
Interview by Writer of Research Paper
Donna E. Shalala, interview by author, Madison,
Wisconsin, 1 December 1992.
Performances and Video Cassettes
Performance:
Anton Chekhov, The Sea Gull, Court
Theatre,Chicago, 5 November 1981.
Videocassette:
Itzak Perlman: In My Case Music,
prod. and dir.Tony DeNonno, 10 min., DeNonno Pix, 1985, videocassette.
Material Obtained Through an
Information Service
Susan J. Kupisch, "Stepping In,"
paper presented as part of the symposium Disrupted and Reorganized Families at
the annual meeting of the Southeastern Psychological Association, Atlanta, Ga.,
23-26 March 1983, Dialog, ERIC,ED 233276.
Secondary Source
Louis Zukofsky, "Sincerity and
Objectification," Poetry 37 (February 1931): 269, quoted in Bonnie
Costello, Marianne Moore: Imaginary Possessions(Cambridge and London:
Harvard University Press, 1981),78.
[The student-writer found the Zukofsky quotation in
Costello's book, not in Zukofsky's original article.]
Material Obtained Through
Internet
Authors First Name Initial Last Name,
“Title of the Web Document,” Title
of Complete Work(if relevant) Date Month Year of Internet Publication,
<URL> (Date Accessed).
Peter J. Bryant, “The Age of Mammals,” in Biodiversity
Conservation April 1999, <http://darwin.bio.uci.edu/~sustain/bio65/index.html>(11 May 1999)
For the second and subsequent
references, use a shortened form of the first note. Simply give the author’s
last name and page reference:
First Reference:
Ernest Kaiser, "The Literature of
Harlem," in
Second Reference:
Kaiser, 67.
If you are using two or more
works of the same author, you must indicate which of the works you are citing.
Add a shortened title to last name and page reference.
First References:
Donald N. McCloskey,
Donald N. McCloskey, The Applied
Theory of Price, 2nd ed. (New York: Macmillan, 1985), 24.
Second Reference:
McCloskey,
The Bibliography
The bibliography, placed at the
end of your paper after the “Notes” section, is an alphabetized list of books,
articles, and other sources consulted in writing the paper. The word
bibliography technically means all the works written on a particular subject.
Thus instead of Bibliography, it is possible to title it as Selected
Bibliography (if you list all of the sources you consulted in writing your
paper), Works Cited or References (if you list only the items you
actually cited in your paper).
Although
bibliographies and notes contain basically the same information, bibliographic
form differs from first note references in the following ways:
l. While notes are numbered;
bibliography is alphabetized. The author's last name appears first
(Blinksworth, Roger) in a bibliography.
2.
While notes use commas and parentheses to separate items; in bibliography
elements of entries are separated by periods (. ).
Ex:
Blinksworth, Roger. Converging on the Evanescent.
Threshold Publications,
1987.
3. The first line of each note is
indented 5 spaces, and subsequent lines return to the left margin. As it is
shown in the previous example, the first line of a bibliographic entry begins
at the left margin and all the other lines are indented 5 spaces.
4. Notes indicate specific pages from
which you took information; a bibliography lists entire books or a complete
chapter to which you referred.
In either note or bibliographic form, if
the author's name or the title (or other item) is missing, simply go on to the
next item as it should appear. When alphabetizing, use the author's last name
for your entry; if it is not given, simply go on to the next item in order (the
title of the book or article, for example) and use that to alphabetize the
entry.
Sample Bibliographic Entries
Book
College Bound Seniors.
Princeton: College Board
Publications, 1979.